quinta-feira, 7 de outubro de 2010

Links:

http://www2.uol.com.br/historiaviva/
http://www.revistadehistoria.com.br/
http://blogdahistoriaviva.blog.uol.com.br/
http://www.historiadigital.org/
http://saibahistoria.blogspot.com/
http://www.ufrgs.br/historia/
http://www.fflch.usp.br/dh/

VIKINGS: The Vikings were known by the development of refined techniques of navigation


The Vikings are an ancient civilization originated in the Scandinavian region, which today comprises the territory of three European countries: Sweden, Denmark and Norway. Also known as Norse or Norman, they established a rich culture that had developed thanks to agriculture, handicraft and a remarkable maritime trade.
The life devoted to the seas also established the piracy as another important economic activity. In several raids carried out in Continental Europe, the Vikings plundered and conquered lands, especially in Britain, which now houses the United Kingdom. Chronologically, the Viking civilization reached its peak between the 8th and 11th centuries.
The process of invasion of Britain happened in the late 8th century. In the year 865, a powerful army of Danish Vikings waged a war that resulted in the conquest of much of the British lands. Thus, we see the consolidation of Danelaw, an extensive Viking territory that encompassed the Center-North and East of Britain. At the same time, the Vikings continued their expansion in Scottish lands.
The dwellings of the Vikings were very simple. Wood, stones and dry grass were the main factors used in the construction of residences. Moreover, we observe that the spatial distribution of home was very simple, often with the presence of a single room. In a little more affluent families, we observe the presence of a more complex division consists of rooms, kitchen and bedrooms.
Because of low temperatures, the Vikings had the expressed need for a garment that could withstand the freezing temperatures in northern Europe. Generally, they combined pieces of fabric with leather and thick skins that could keep their body warm. Moreover, we also emphasize that all the people enjoyed the use of accessories in metal and stone.
The Viking family organization had clear patriarchal traces, being the man largely responsible for family protection and realization of the main economic activities. Dedicated to the domestic domain, the woman was responsible for food preparation and also helped in small daily tasks. Children’s education was delegated to parents, being they who conveyed the Viking traditions and crafts.
The king was the main political authority among the Vikings. Shortly thereafter, the earls and chieftains also enjoyed great prestige and power of command among the population. The decision-making power between the sites had some presence among the Vikings. Gathered outdoors, they discussed the development of their own laws and punishments to be deferred against criminals.
In the religious sphere, the Vikings were carriers of a rich mythology populated by various gods systematically worshiped in collective events. Several stories involve the struggle between the Norse gods or the conflict between the gods and the giants. Odin was worshiped as “the God of gods”. Thor was the god of greater popularity and had power over the heavens and protected the Viking people.
With the Christianization of Europe, throughout the Middle Ages, the Vikings were gradually converted to this new religion. The dissolution of the Viking culture happens between the 11th and 12th centuries. The various conflicts against the English and the nobles of Normandy established the disintegration of this civilization, which is still manifest in some manifestations of European culture.

TURKS: The Turks formed one of the most extensive empires in all history



The origin of Turkish civilization dates back to the decay process of the domination of the Huns in Central Asia. Previously known as “Gokturks”, this people has been consolidated thanks to the strategic location of their territories, controlled by thriving trade routes. However, the decline of this civilization propitiated the invasion of the Mongols and Arabs to this portion of the Asian territory.
In this process, we see the rise of the Seljuks, an Islamic tribe that was able to determine the expansion of the Muslim faith in Asia Minor. At the height of its formation, the Turkish-Ottoman Empire encompassed large parts of Anatolia, the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and the Balkans. Between the 16th and 17th centuries they composed one of the most powerful states in the Modern World.
In the 19th century, the Turkish-Ottomans did not experience the same times of prosperity and hegemony. During the First World War (1914-1918), they fought alongside the Germans and ended up losing their fields after being defeated and forced to agree with the stipulated terms by the Treaty of Sevres. The intention was to perform the dismemberment of Turkish-Ottoman territories in favor of the domination of the Allies.
However, under the leadership of General Mustafa Kemal, the Turks put an end to the hegemonic interests of foreigners in the conflict that became known as the Turkish War of Independence. From this moment, the Turks experienced a clear process of westernization of its political institutions by imposing the end of the Sultanate and the local power of their caliphs.
From the second half of the 20th century onward, the Turkish nation has experienced a noticeable process of westernization of its culture. Meanwhile, economic crises and political coups printed the ebbs and flows of this modernizing trend. Currently, one of the most important goals of the Turkish government is to enable the country’s economic integration with the European Union.

SUMERIANS: The Sumerians are considered the oldest civilization of humanity



Throughout the history of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians are considered the first civilization to occupy the territories between the Tigris and Euphrates. In the 4th millennium BC, the first Sumerian populations moved from the plateau of Iran until they lodge in the region of Chaldea, which includes the Middle and Lower Mesopotamia. Probably Quish was the first city founded and was soon followed by the development of cities such as Eridu, Nippur, Ur, Uruk and Lagash.
From the political point of view, the Sumerian cities were completely independent. In each, a priest had the help of a group of elders to make major policy decision were posted. However, at some point, we see that this configuration is being replaced by a more centralized model. The patesi assumes the condition of monarch of the city-state and transmits the powers of his office for an heir, forming a dynasty.
One of the most significant contributions of the Sumerians is linked to the development of so-called cuneiform. In this system, we observe the characters printed on a base of clay that was exposed to the sun, and soon after, hardened with its exposure to the fire. In fact, this Mesopotamian civilization produced an extensive literary activity which included the creation of poetry, law codes, fables, myths and other narratives.
The absence of political union between the Sumerians can be seen in the existence of various conflicts between the cities that occupied the territory. Taking advantage of the constant wars between the cities of Lagash and Ur, the Semites settled in Mesopotamia and organized a robust civilization around the city of Akkad. Around 2350 BC the Akkadian conquered the Sumerian regions, and thus constituted the Akkadian Empire, the first great Mesopotamian state.

RUSSIANS: The Russian nation is composed of ethnic groups that link the variety of this civilization





The formation of Russian civilization dates back to prehistoric times, when glaciations and the process of climate change guided the process of occupation of Eastern Europe. Going into antiquity, we note the dominance of pre-Slavic peoples, who mastered the use of metal to defend themselves from warrior nomadic tribes who reached the territory.
Over time, the Slavs withstood the waves of occupation and developed an economy based on exploitation of agriculture, livestock, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. In the 9th century, the Slavic civilization established contact with the Vikings, who came into conflict with the Slavic people, named by them as “Rus”. Probably this may be one of the etymological origins of the use of the word “Russian” to denote the inhabitants of this region.
Because of its enormous territorial extension, Russia developed a slow and lengthy process of political centralization. Throughout the Middle Ages, Volga Bulgaria and the Russians of Kiev formed some more stable governmental experiments that dominated the Russian space. In the 13th century the Mongol-Tatar incursion signed a new period in Russian history.
The destruction promoted by this foreign people over dismantling all the legacy of large cities that took centuries to establish. Over two and a half centuries, the Mongols drew a vigorous process of domination that was reversed only through the efforts of military and political unification of the people of Eastern Europe.
The development of unification became known as the Renaissance period of Russian civilization, and marked the formation of a national centralized monarchy. The culmination of this process of unification happened in the government of Peter the Great, who bothered to boost the Russian economy by sending people to master the techniques of European shipping.
The action of this monarch transformed the closed and self-sufficient economic scenario, which once dominated the Russian scene. The agricultural and commercial activities began to reach a new level and the Imperial State expanded its power of domination in that vast territory. In the 19th century, the Russians had intense involvement in the wars that sought to impede the progress of the Napoleonic Empire.
Despite many achievements, Russians experienced the formation of serious contradictions within their society. The peasants and urban workers experienced a situation of misery that was diametrically opposed to the wealth of a small elite in control of productive assets and explicitly protected by the powers of Tsarist rule.
This scenario become with the legendary 1917 Russian Revolution, where workers were gradually taken by the socialist doctrines. At the time this event caused great surprise to the rest of the Western capitalist world that abhorred the development of such expertise in its fields. Since then, the Russians realized the formation of a Socialist State.
After World War II, the decisive role of Russian troops against the totalitarian forces undertook the development of Russian political influence. In contrast, the capitalist nations, represented by the United States, sought to counter this ideological advance with the imposition of so-called bipolar order. Thus, the development of the Cold War came to be experienced.
Between the 1970s and 1980s, the Russian socialist system gone through serious difficulties from a gigantic and corrupt bureaucratic structure. Thus, through the actions of Mikhail Gorbachev, Russian socialism came to an end. Since then, Russia faced the challenge of modernizing its economy and repairing the problems brought by the previous regime. Currently, the Russian nation is seen as an economically emerging country.

ROMANS: The Romans influence many institutions and customs of the West



When we look at the extent of the Roman Empire on a map, we hardly imagine that this civilization originated from a small town in the Italian peninsula. Nestled in the central portion of this territory, the city of Rome was born through the efforts of the Latins and Sabines peoples who around 1000 BC had erected a fort that would prevent the incursion of the Etruscans.
The few details about the origins of Rome are shrouded by the classic mythical explanation that attributes its foundation to the action taken by the brothers Romulus and Remus. After founding Rome would have experienced its monarchic period, where the king established its political hegemony over the entire population and had the support of a Council of Elders known as the Senate.
The members of the Senate came from the patrician class, who had control over the large and fertile farms of the region. Over time, the economic hegemony of this elite allowed the formation of a republican regime in which the Senate took major political tasks. Between the 6th and 1st centuries BC, the republican regime guided the political life of Roman citizens.
However, the patrician hegemony was increasingly opposed by commoners who occupied the ranks of the army and guaranteed military protection of the Roman areas. Progressively, the plebeian class came to enjoy rights within the republican regime and make laws that target the rights and obligations that this social group had.
Despite these reforms, social inequality continued to prevail upon a society that started to depend increasingly on the workforce of its slaves. The territorial conquests enriched the Roman elites and determined the dependence of a mass of commoners who could not find work opportunities. In fact, social tensions were constant and showed the differences of the Roman world.
Gradually, the social tensions widened with the rise of military leaders (generals) who coveted to take front of the Roman state. The attempted coup signaled the undoing of the republican power and paved the way that turned Rome into an Empire. In the 1st century BC, the general Octavius finally managed to establish the imperial order.
During the Empire, we see the rise of governments that kept order, as well as other leaders who imbibed the power won. In the 1st century AD, the development of the Christian religion was a fundamental point in the transformation of the Empire. The religious and expansionary doctrine contradicted the beliefs (polytheism) and institutions (slavery) that held up the Roman world.
Around the 3rd century, the advent of the Barbarian invasions and the disruption of the expansion of territories marched in favor of the dissolution of this Empire. Despite the defeat imposed on the Romans, their practices, concepts and knowledge are still fundamental to understanding the shape of the Western world. In a sense, all roads still lead us (a little) to Rome.

RAPA NUI: The sculptures of Rapa Nui civilization are unknown to scholars of Easter Island



Known as one of the most distant points in the planet, Easter Island is located in exactly 3700 kilometers of the American continent and almost keeps the same distance to Tahiti in the Pacific. Due to the isolated location, this small amount of land released in the ocean does not seem to be conducive to the formation of any civilization or culture.
Not only that the problem of distance, Easter is an island endowed of several landforms that prevent the presence of fertile land or other resources conducive to human settlement. However, contrary to almost grotesque image of this place, Easter is taken by a number of giant statues that claim to represent the face of a human.
From this evidence, many people had the curiosity to investigate and try to unravel this mystery revealed by a group of Dutch navigators of the 18th century. After several studies, ethnographers and other specialists concluded that the so-called “Rapa Nui people” came to Easter Island in small vessels with double hulls.
Living alongside the scientific evidence, the oral tradition of some peoples who live closest to the site says the first to step on that land was a guy named Hotu Matua. For archaeologists, the process of occupation of the island would have happened between the 5th and 8th centuries AD. Moreover, students are also convinced that the animal population would have been installed by the Polynesian tribes who visited the region.
Whatever the events which provide a logical explanation to the process of occupation of the island, the presence of statues of a human face, also known as moai, is the great mystery that surrounds the place. In all, 887 monoliths are accounted that have between 1 to 10 meters tall. We should also stress that other similar versions of these statues can be found in Tahiti and Hawaii.
No more clear reports or evidence indicates the real motives which would have justified the construction of these statues. However, performing a comparative study of the traditions of the neighbor Polynesian peoples, some scholars concluded that the statues would serve to demarcate the land or point to the political leadership of a leader who had lived on the island.

PHOENICIANS: The handicraft and maritime trade marked the course of Phoenician civilization



The Phoenicians were responsible for the formation of a rich civilization that occupied a strip of Mediterranean coastline that penetrated the Asian territory to the mountains of today Lebanon. Earlier in their career, like other ancient peoples, the Phoenicians developed an economy exclusively devoted to agriculture. However, thanks to its geographical position, it enabled the commercial contact with various nomadic caravans.
The expansion of trade was responsible for organizing various independent urban centers, among whom Arwad, Byblos, Ugarit, Tyre and Sidon. In each of these cities, we observe the presence of a monarch chosen by the decision of the great merchants and landowners of the site. Thus, we can say that the Phoenician political landscape was highly plutocratic, that is, controlled by the richest portions of the population.
The development of trade between the Phoenicians came primarily through the implementation of trade in goods. Over time, the expansion of activities concentrated on the manufacture of coins that facilitated the conduct of business. Under this aspect, we should also highlight the great complexity of the handicraft among the Phoenicians. Wood, carpet, stone, ivory, glass and metals were some of the products that attracted the attention of skilled Phoenician craftsmen.
Another interesting contribution from trade between the Phoenicians was the elaboration of one of the oldest alphabets of all history. Through a specific set of symbols, the Phoenicians were able to undertake the regulation of their business activities and expand the possibilities of communication between people. Centuries later, the Greco-Roman civilization was influenced directly by the system inaugurated by the Phoenicians.
In the religious sphere, the Phoenicians were known for their broad interest in the animistic practices, that is, the worship of trees, mountains and other manifestations of nature. The Great Mother and Baal (the protector god) were the two most prestigious deities of the Phoenician religious universe. Generally, the rituals were performed outdoors and included the performance of sacrifices, and some of these relied on the offering of human beings.

PERSIANS: The military conquests and the administrative organization mark the history of the Persians



Located between the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea, the Persians established one of the most important ancient civilizations in the territory that today correspond to Iran. Around 550 BC, a prince called Cyrus performed the domination of the Kingdom of Media, and thus began the formation of a prosperous reign which lasted about twenty-five years. At that time, this slick emperor also won the kingdom of Lydia, Phoenicia, Syria, Palestine, the Greek regions of Asia Minor and Babylonia.
The expansion process opened by Cyrus was reinstated by the action of the Emperor Darius, who dominated the plains of the Indus River and Thrace. At this point, given the large proportions assumed by the Persian territory, this same emperor allowed the ordination of a feisty administrative reform. By the hands of Darius, the Persian fields were divided into satrapies, subdivisions of the territory to be controlled by a satrap.
The satrap was the important task of organizing the collection of taxes and had the assistance of a general secretary and a military commander. To resolve the continuing problems arising from the collection of taxes, Darius stipulated the creation of a single currency (drams) and the construction of an efficient set of roads. Through this, a group of employees, known as "eyes and ears of the king", supervise the collection volume of each satrapy.
These actions ensured the development of a well articulated economy based on commerce among the several cities encompassed by the Persian Empire. At the same time, we must point out that standards and regulations established by the state were responsible for the maintenance of an efficient administrative body and carry out various public works. Only after the defeat in the Greco-Persian Wars we start to envision the dismantling of this vast empire.
The religious life of Persian civilization attracts the curiosity of many people who are interested in the peoples of Eastern antiquity. Followers of the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster, the Persians have a structure of religious thought very close to other faiths like Judaism and Christianity. In short, they believe in the opposition between two deities (Mazda, the god of Good, and Ahriman, the god of Evil) and in the end of times.
The Persians artistic manifestations were noticeably influenced by politics. In several works, monuments and other buildings there are reproductions that commemorate the life and important achievements of kings. In the architectural field, the Persian palaces were endowed by a complex range of decoration and gardening. Surveys show the Persians built some of their palaces through digging large rocks.

OLMECS: The Olmecs established one of the oldest civilizations in the Americas



Thousands of years ago, in the borders between Mexico and the United States, the Olmecs founded a civilization that influenced the cultural formation of other peoples who inhabited the American space. Previously, this Mesoamerican location was summarized in the presence of some populations among the regions of swamp and mountain that dominated a rudimentary agriculture.
The development of the Olmec civilization, given after the period between 1500 and 1200 BC, was due to the improvement of these farming techniques, so they could overcome the hostility of the environment and sustain large populations. Within this framework of development, expansion of the occupied areas and the emergence of urban centers happened gradually.
The support of many of these urban centers, built in areas hit by severe floods and droughts occurred through the invention of a system of aqueducts that channeled the water to be consumed during the hottest periods. Moreover, we observe that the expansion of this civilization was also linked to the development of commercial activities, which joined several American regions.
The ancient town of San Lorenzo is considered one of the most significant poles radiators of Olmec people. Some research suggests that the process of developing of this city was thanks to the expanse of water resources. Moreover, it is believed that an elite had dominated politically the scene, having in mind the great amount of luxurious artefacts identified in the region.
One of the most prominent evidence of this material refinement of San Lorenzo attests to the existence of a large temple filled with large heads carved from basalt stone. Even today, no one knows what the exact meaning of these representations in the cultural Olmec context. However, the presence of visible Negroid traces back a possible and indecipherable African presence in the Americas.
The splendor and a high degree of development of San Lorenzo were losing its place between the years 950 and 900 BC. The sculptures had been vandalized and homes abandoned. Although no precise evidence on this episode of Olmec history, some historians suspect that an internal conflict had driven this stampede.
At the same time that San Lorenzo went into sharp decline, the city of La Venta became the most unifying center of the Olmec culture. By the 4th century BC, this city was very important to this civilization. After that, perhaps by the action of major climate change, this region was being uninhabited until the final extinction of the Olmec people.
Even with its demise and the limits of the artifacts found, the Olmec culture is impressive because many of its achievements. Recent excavations have described that this would have been the first people to create a written code in the entire Western world. Moreover, other speculations suggest the creation of a compass and the adoption of the number "zero" in the development of mathematical operations.

MAYANS: The Mayans were responsible for inventions in various fields of knowledge



Just as the Olmecs, the Maya civilization instigates a series of unanswered questions for many paleontologists, historians and anthropologists who investigate this pre-Columbian people. The evidence of the origin of the Maya civilization lies in the archaeological sites of the Yucatan Peninsula, which date between 700 and 500 BC. However, new researches admit a more remote organization, established in 1500 BC.
Unlike other great civilizations, the Mayans are not politically organized through a centralized political power structure. In a vast territory that stretched from Guatemala to southern Mexico, we observe the presence of several independent cities. Among major cities included in this system we can highlight Piedras Negras, Palenque, Tikal, Yaxchilan, Copan, Uxmal and Labna.
The splendor of the Maya society is fundamentally explained by the control and the disciplines used in the development of agriculture. Among the various foods that were part of the diet of the Mayans, we can highlight the corn, major consumer product, cocoa, cotton and agave. To extend the life of their land, the Mayans used to organize a system of crop rotation.
The process of organization of society was very rigid and was guided by the presence of three social classes. At the top of the hierarchy we find the governors, senior officials and traders. Soon after, we have civil servants and skilled workers. At the base of the pyramid were the peasants and laborers.
The Mayans had a wide range of knowledge developed within their culture. According to some surveys, they used a numerical scoring system based on vigesimal units and, like the Olmecs, they used the number "zero" in the execution of mathematical operations. They also created a calendar rather close to the year system employed by modern calendars.
A great challenge for researchers of the Maya civilization revolves around the unraveling of its complex writing system. One of the biggest obstacles is related to the fact that signs employees can represent sounds, ideas, or both at the same time. Moreover, indications show that they used different forms of writing to a single concept.
The architecture of this people had always closely linked to the reaffirmation of its religious ideals. Multiple columns, arches and temples were erected in honor of the great pantheon of deities celebrated by the Maya culture. The polytheistic face of Maya beliefs was still guided by the belief in life after death and carry out human sacrifices regularly performed.
By the 13th century, Maya society collapsed. Even today, there is no explanation that can answer this latter question involving the history of the Mayans. Recently, a group of American researchers went to work with the hypothesis that the crisis of this civilization is related to the occurrence of a fierce drought that would have extended for over two centuries.

JAPANESE: The Japanese are renowned for their balance between traditions and modernity



The origins of Japanese civilization are remote and very inaccurate. However, some studies indicate that the first occupants of this territory appeared in the 3rd century BC. Among the various cultures that arise during this period of formation, we can highlight the existence of the Yayoi, Kyushu and Jomon. According to some surveys, the most remote civilizations would have come from Siberia during the Neolithic period.
The process of political unification of Japan would have happened along the Yamato dynasty, which set up the presence of a centralized state. However, to reach the 6th century, the existence of royal power was gradually losing ground to the power exercised by local chiefs. After the called Onin War, the central government lost ground to the local landlords who warred constantly with each other.
In the 7th century, local disputes and conflicts lost space for the reorganization of the Yamato dynasty, which succeeded in promoting changes that recovered the monarchy. After some disputes, the Japanese monarchy became almost hegemonic during a period of about a thousand years. At that time, it is worth noting the rise of the samurai as major military and political officials.
In the 16th century, contact with Spanish and Portuguese traders established the gradual process of opening of the Japanese civilization to the Western world. The action of merchants and Jesuit clerics marked the first time of the cultural transformations that taken place in Japan. In the 19th century, the imperialist action of USA was a key fundamental for the opening of the Japanese people to the West.
With economic liberalization forced by the military fleet of USA, the Japanese came into contact with new political ideologies. Soon, a strong nationalist movement claimed to modernize the country's institutions and an end to foreign influence in the territory. From 1868, the called Meiji Revolution ordered the Japanese industrialization and the extinction of ancient medieval institutions.
Interestingly, in a short time, the Japanese abandoned the position of nation subordinated to the imperialism to become an industrial powerhouse promoter of such dominatrix policy. The culmination of this new situation appears in the first decades of the 20th century, when the Japanese government was involved in the conflicts of the First and Second World War.
At the end of World War II, fearing the rising of a socialist neighbor power, the USA promoted the launch of the bombs of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This nuclear tragedy symbolized the reconstruction of the Japanese nation, which had no resources to recover from the terrible economic and human losses of the conflict. In the 1970s, it stirred and occupied an important role in the global economy.
Currently, the Japanese are systematically associated with the development of cutting edge technology that marks capitalism. The fields of computer science, robotics, telecommunications and racing are the most significant targets that attest to the position of Japanese forefront. Time and again, the media announce another invention or discovery from the Japanese laboratories.

INDIANS: The Indian civilization carries the traditions such as explanation of its reality



The origins of civilization are emerging in the process of territorial occupation promoted by various Aryan tribes between 2000 and 1500 BC. Before that, the Hindu civilization was responsible for organizing a vast culture filled with artifacts that prove the presence of a complex society endowed with an extensive agriculture, the performance of commercial activities and own religious practices.
From that event we have the formation of the Vedic civilization, which gets its name because of the sacred texts gathered in the Vedas. This work consists of a collection of poems and writings attributed to Krishna, incarnation of Vishnu, one of the most important deities of the Indian people. In it we have the presence of religious precepts as well as social rules that justify the Indian caste system.
Under this system, the birth of a person in a certain family defines the nature of her caste. Followers of the principle of reincarnation, the Indians relate the presence of a person in a caste with her spiritual self-denial in her lifetimes. To the extent that spirituality is worked, the individual can occupy a higher caste in each incarnation.
Around the 6th century BC, a new religious movement transformed the Indian scenario again. According to the Indian codices, this time, a prince named Siddhartha Gautama abandoned his life of luxury and pleasure to experience an ascetic life focused on the end of human suffering. With that, he wrote the various principles of Buddhism, a religion that spread in various regions of the Eastern world.
Other religions such as Islam and Jainism also appear in the history of Indian civilization and demonstrate the presence of a history behind it. When we reached the modern era, we note that other Western civilizations came into contact with India. The valuable and diverse Indian products caught the attention of European merchants of the 15th and 16th centuries.
When we reach the 19th century, the intonation of contact with Europeans was transformed by the imperialist actions taken by the British Empire. Interested in developing its economy and capture new markets, the English staged a gradual process of political meddling in India. Over time, the rule enabled a strong tension between British and Indian.
The end of British hegemony only gained force when the leader Mahatma Gandhi undertook the organization of a peace movement. Through non-violent civil disobedience and conducting high-impact speeches to the Indian population, this political and spiritual leader could disrupt the justifications and the ordering of political control supported by England.
After achieving independence, India was involved in an unresolved territorial dispute with Pakistan for Kashmir. Moreover, its economy has adapted to the needs of contemporary capitalism, and today occupies the status of emerging country. Nevertheless, we see that India suffers from the various dilemmas that expose the tensions between Western modernization and the preservation of its ancient traditions.

INCAS: The Incas formed a rich empire along the Andean region



Established in the Andes, the Incas are a great civilization that dominated a wide range of land by the South American territory. According to a report of a mythical nature, the Incan people originally settled in the Cuzco region and was the first great leader Manco Capac. Because of the more favorable geographical conditions, the Inca presence concentrated primarily in the central Andes.
By the 15th century, the Incas established a process of territorial expansion that sought the plateau landlocked between the Andes mountains and the plains of the Pacific coast. Under the tutelage of the Emperor Pachacuti Yupanqui, other populations were militarily subordinate to Inca power. Thus, civilization began to take on the character of a great empire.
"The Inca" was the most important political authority among the Inca people. Revered as a descendant of the sun god Inti Raymi, the emperor was the chief guardian of all state-owned assets, including land ownership. The cultivable land was divided into three distinct segments: the land of the Inca, for the king and his family; the land of the sun god, controlled by priests; and the land of the population.
In a general context, the elite of Inca society was composed by the royal family and the occupants of high-ranking politico-administrative (priests, military leaders, judges, provincial governors and scholars). Just below, in the middle position, we have the traders and handicraftsmen that ensured the movement of goods which confirmed the presence of a rich material culture.
The peasants organized themselves through an extensive family group which was known by the name of the ayllu. Each ayllu had agricultural work, military service and his other works organized by an oldest leader called curaca. Usually, each of these production units was equipped with a large warehouse stocked with food and clothing used in any event.
The religion of the Incas was marked by the worship of various elements of nature like the sun, moon, lightning and earth. In the value system of the Inca religion, all benefits achieved should be rewarded with some kind of sacrifice that expressed the gratitude of men. For this, we note that the Incas organized various rituals where sacrifices, including humans, were common.
To connect the cities that were part of the Inca Empire, a series of roads in stone was built in order to facilitate the communication and the displacement between people. It is noteworthy that the Inca cities relied on various complex architectural projects that included the construction of palaces, forts and temples with amazing dimensions.
In the 16th century, moment that marks the arrival of the Spanish in America, the Inca civilization suffered from a series of internal conflicts. Taking advantage of this instability, the European settlers waged a violent process of domination. In the year 1571, the remnants of this civilization were made conditional upon the death of their leader, Tupac Amaru I.

GREEKS: The Greeks formulated many practices that influenced the formation of the Contemporary World



Ancient Greece was born in the southern Balkan Peninsula and also dominated other neighboring regions as the Italian Peninsula, Asia Minor and some islands in the Aegean Sea. Over time, several cities politically independent of each other appeared and established several practices that profoundly influenced the customs that now defines feature of the western world.
From a geographic perspective, the space that gave rise to the Greek World is full of various landforms. The change in relief had enormous importance for each city to consolidate its own culture and impedes the formation of a possible unified state. Moreover, due to this same feature, we see the impossibility of an extensive agricultural activity.
After experiencing a social experience focused on the collective use of land, wee see that the development of an aristocracy undertook the establishment of the first urban centers. Because of its independence already mentioned, we understand that Ancient Greek should be observed as a broad mosaic of cultures that developed in different ways.
Briefly, the city-states of Athens and Sparta attest to the existence of this cultural diversity and show gifted in customs and practices that influenced Western culture. Among the Athenians, we gave special emphasis to the organization of democratic rule. Over time, the idea of building a representative political system gained space and new reinterpretation.
At one point, the differences between the city-states promoted the intensification of political interests between them. With that, detached from the League of Delos and Peloponnese, the cities of Ancient Greece wore out in a prolonged war that opened doors for the domination of other peoples about this civilization. First, we have Alexander the Great as the first ruler of the region.
Even promoting its military hegemony against the Greeks, the Emperor Alexander assumed the role of great enthusiast of Greek culture. In several cities and territories he controlled, he was keen to disseminate the elements of Greek culture through various manifestations. In the end, the action of the Macedonian emperor was of paramount importance to the Hellenic values continuing throughout the time.
When the Macedonian empire was conquered, we realize that many elements of Greek culture influenced the political, social and economic development of the Roman Empire. Again, the Greek culture established itself as a formative element of a new set of ideas and values historically preserved and patient with benchmarks that guide the understanding of Western culture today.

GERMANS: The looting was one of the most important economic activities among the Germans



In speaking of the Germanic peoples, we established the observation of a large myriad of cultures scattered in different tribes called by the Romans as Barbarian. The term "Barbarian" denounces the prejudiced gaze that the Romans dedicated to the Germanic tribes, because the term was intended to promote a negative distinction between peoples who dominated the Latin language and those who did not know the same language.
Among the Germans we can find a wide variety of peoples, among which we highlight the Suebi, Visigoths, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Saxons, Angles, Burgundians and Alamanni. Despite the many differences that we can draw between these tribes, there are some features in common that just entering the fields of decadent Western Roman Empire.
From an economic perspective, the Germans established an agricultural economy of itinerant nature that promoted the use of land until its complete exhaustion. In parallel, hunting and fishing were other activities that also played a relative prominence. Influenced by their military culture, the Germans promoted looting and invasions that turned into another interesting source of income.
Politically, the Germans did not have a highly centralized political structure. The warlords had a prominent role, however, personal relationships and individual autonomy prevailed in any centralizing experience. Over time, an elite of warriors was taking a political role of greater expressiveness that differed them from the peasants who worked on their lands.
The social order of the Germans was established through patriarchal clans and tribes which held together by inbred relations. Generally, when a decision reached a large portion of the population, an assembly of warriors was responsible for decision making. The comitatus, which imposed the military union of warriors, was transient and influenced the social formation of the medieval world.
The religion of the Germans was marked by the worship of various deities which established a diversified mythology. One of the most important gods was Odin, the god of war. Life after death was a common belief among Germans. To the great warriors, death prior to moving to an immense paradise called valhalla.

FRENCH: The French civilization influenced many nations with its tastes and paradigms



The idea of a French civilization dates back to the merger process between the Roman and Gallic cultures in ancient times. At that time, the incursion of the Germanic peoples in the Western Roman Empire was responsible for the consolidation of a number of cultural practices and political institutions that defined the birth of a new setting in the ancient region of Gaul.
In the Middle Ages, contradicting the strong political decentralization of the time, the kingdom of the Franks established the most influential monarchy throughout medieval Europe. During this period, dynasties and emperors of this kingdom contributed to the establishment of Christianity in Europe. The association between Church and State was a practice that characterized the medieval Frank kingdom.
The dissolution of this monarchy, which occurred between the 9th and 10th centuries, meant that the power of feudal lords had great importance. From the historical point of view, the French territory was one of the places where feudal practices had greater presence across Europe. Not coincidentally, the privilege of the nobility class lasted for a long time and still preserved some remnants in the 19th century.
In the modern era, the formation of national monarchies undertook a series of wars where the organization of a strong and centralized state begins to take force. The Hundred Years' War and the various religious conflicts appear in the construction of a French government limited by the strength of royal power. In the end, in the arrival of the 18th century, France would live a peak, and soon after, the crisis of the absolutist regime.
Establishing the passage of the Modern Age to Contemporary, the French gone through a revolutionary process able to transform the shape of half the world. The famous French Revolution instituted political ideals that, despite its limits, rocked the monarchical European hegemony and, at the same time, allowed the development of the uprisings that ends the colonial order on American soil.
For a long time, France became a synonym for avant-garde and experimentalism that made its capital, Paris, in the historic City of Light. The influence of French culture reached a point where, in the first decades of the 20th century, importing of its fashions and customs had ample space in the great Brazilian urban centers.

ENGLISH: England has its history marked by important political and economic revolutions



The origins of English civilization are closely related to the formation of the Western Roman Empire. For a long time, the Island of Britain occupied only a peripheral position among the various provinces controlled by Rome. However, at the end of antiquity, this situation changed when the Angles and Saxons invaded this territory.
Soon after, the Vikings also invaded the island, imposing another rule that marked the British scene until the Late Middle Ages. In the year 1066, under the leadership of King William, the French Norman conquered the region and thus established the end of the Anglo-American hegemony in the territory. Thus, Britain was divided into counties to be distributed to the militaries that won the conflict.
This division of land marked the installation of feudalizing practices that already took great part of Europe. However, in the 12th century, the rise of the Plantagenet dynasty changed the present political scene with the employment of actions that would contribute to the political centralization of Britain. With the creation of common law and real justice, the British kings would concentrate power in his hands.
The presence of these legal structures allowed several taxes were charged to the population and a regular army would be preserved under the command of the monarch. However, in the passage of the 12th and 13th centuries, the involvement of the Plantagenet kings in wars against France and the organization of the Crusades created a climate of great dissatisfaction among the nobles submitted to collecting of various charges.
In 1215, a revolt organized by British landowners imposed the king to sign the Magna Carta, which stated that the introduction of taxes should first be approved by a council composed of members of the clergy and nobility. In fact, under the historical perspective, we note that the English never got to experience an absolutist political regime.
Such autonomist sentiment gained even more significant proportions with the rise of the bourgeois class in this country. In the 17th century, anticipating future conflicts between the bourgeoisie and the monarchs, England experienced a liberal revolution that banished the substantial interference of royal power. With the English Revolution, the bourgeois class in this country reached the necessary conditions to boost their trade.
The result of these actions was blunted in the next century, when the English nation reached a condition of cradle of the called Industrial Revolution. With technology and government support, England became one of the most influential economic powers throughout history. Soon, the products coming out of that tiny island captured consumers markets in various parts of the planet.
In the 19th century, the expansion of the capitalist economy prompted the English to promote the colonization of territories scattered throughout Africa and Asia. In the so-called neo-colonialism or imperialism, the British interfered in the politics of different regions of the planet in order to broaden their markets, exploit cheap labor and obtain raw materials by low cost.
The major consequence of this policy shifted in the outbreak of the First and Second World War, where we have sparked the fierce competition between the great capitalist countries. Finally, Europe being the big stage of these conflicts, England lost its economic leadership to the United States, its ancient colony during the Modern Age.
The English culture is present today in various areas of Western culture. The English language is now practiced all over the world and has become an indispensable communication apparatus to the present. Moreover, the English created the football, a sport that today mobilizes passions and interest of many people around the world.

EGYPTIANS: The Egyptians established a rich civilization on the banks of the Nile



There are over 4000 years before Christ the domination of agricultural techniques allowed the emergence of various civilizations around the world. In the northeast extreme of Africa, in a region features desert, the Egyptian civilization flourished thanks to the abundant water resources and fertile lands which were located on the banks of the Nile.
The water cycle in this region promoted the regular overflow of the river that, during the dry season, left a rich organic material on the surface of their lands. Noticing this change, the Egyptians were able to develop a thriving civilization that expanded thanks to the bountiful harvests. Thus, we have defined the process of development and expansion of the Egyptians.
Politically, the Egyptians were organized through the formation of the nomes. The nomes were small portions of the Egyptian territory administered by a nomarch. Later times, these various nomes were centralized under the power of an emperor. In the year 3200 BC, Menes, the ruler of Upper Egypt, promoted the subordination of 42 nomes, initiating the Egyptian Empire.
Egyptian society was organized by religious and economic criteria. The Pharaoh held the top of this hierarchy in the condition of head of state and incarnation of the god Horus. Just below, we have priests as agents organizers of cults and religious festivities. The nobles and scribes occupied an intermediate position performing important tasks that kept the functioning of the state.
The basis of this society still had the soldiers, who were backed by the government and guaranteed the hegemony of pharaonic power through weapons. Just below, the peasants and handicraftsmen who worked on the crops and the organization of public works necessary for agricultural and trading development. Finally, there was a small portion of slaves who were also subordinate to the Pharaoh.
Besides being able to prosper economically by the rigid control of agricultural production, we note that the Egyptians also produced knowledge in varied fields. The architecture, medicine and astronomy are considered as the most interesting facets of the Egyptian scientific legacy. We should stress also the writing, which was organized by complex systems of symbols and codes.

CHINESE: The Chinese civilization was responsible for the creation of important inventions



When we speak today of the Chinese, remember a large territory occupied by a huge population. However, this understanding of China forgets the thousands of years that make up its story. The oldest documents that speak of this people have more than four thousand years old, attesting to the condition of one of the oldest civilizations of the world.
The most ancient evidence of the Chinese people proved its multiple formation drawn by the influence of several peoples who inhabited primarily the territory. Among the populations that line the origin of Chinese we can highlight the Daxi, Majiapang, Hemudu and Yangshou cultures, this last established near the Yellow River.
According to legends originating from the Chinese people, the peoples who occupied the northern portion of the Yellow River were unified. Over time, we had the formation of an expansionist nation led by two brave emperors known as the Yellow and Fiery. Under their command, military forces were organized in order to conquer the southern portion of the areas near the Yellow River.
Under this new configuration, the Chinese formed a patriarchal society sustained by the development of agricultural economy. The material development of this time is recognized in the techniques of fabrication of silk, the invention of instruments that facilitated agriculture and the dominance of metals that improved the weapons used by armies.
The longest period of Chinese history includes the 5th to 19th centuries, when we see a vast centered empire organizing the life of this great civilization. By the 15th century, the Chinese occupied a prominent position in the intellectual and technological production. They were the inventors of gunpowder, the compass, the first press and medicine.
In Contemporary Times, the supremacy of the Chinese Empire was shaken by contact with European nations involved in the process of expanding of industrial economy. During the 19th century, the imperialist action ended up establishing a series of conflicts that contributed to a new period of Chinese history. The Chinese modernized their institutions, and today occupy the status of world power.

CELTS: The Celtic culture influenced many civilizations that settled throughout Europe



The Celts are part in one of the richest civilizations in the ancient world. The origins of this civilization dates back to the development process of the Iron Age, when they would have been responsible for the introduction of iron handling and metallurgy in Europe. In fact, recognition of the Celtic people may be defined as much by a shared of a specific material culture, as the use of the Celtic language.
Not making a cohesive civilization, the Celts subdivided into different peoples among which we highlight the Belgians, Gauls, Britons, Scots, Hollanders, Eburones, Galatians, Caledonians and Trinovantes. During the development of the Roman Empire, many of these peoples were responsible for the appointment of some provinces that made up the giant Roman fields.
From an economic standpoint, we note that the Celts established commercial contact with different civilizations of antiquity. Around the 6th century BC, the relationship with foreign peoples may be proved by the existence of material elements of Etruscan and Chinese origin in regions typically dominated by the Celtic peoples.
Around the 5th century BC, the Celts started to occupy other regions that went beyond the limits of the rivers Rhone, Danube and Sano. The presence of some weapons and chariots attests to the process of conquest of land located on south of Europe. After they extend into other regions of Europe, the Celts were constantly opposed by the growing forces of the Roman Army.
Celtic society was usually organized by clans, where several families shared the land fertile, but preserved the ownership of livestock. The wider hierarchy of Celtic society was composed of the nobility class, free men, servants, handicraftsmen and slaves. Moreover, it is important that priests, known as druids, held great prestige and influence.
The religion of the Celts was marked by a series of deities who possessed unique powers or had the ability to represent some element of nature or animal. Over time, some myths and gods were incorporated into the Roman paganism and even in the path of some Christian saints. Today, Ireland is the country where there are several traces of Celtic culture.

CARTHAGINIANS: The Punic Wars established the disintegration of Carthaginian civilization



The Carthaginian civilization has its origins linked to the process of economic and trade expansion of the Phoenicians. By the 9th century BC, the Phoenicians of city of Tyre held the first actions that transformed this region of North Africa in one of the most important of antiquity. By virtue of his position and Phoenician influence, Carthage soon became a powerful trading center.
The development of the maritime economy and the search for new settlement points led the Carthaginians to come into conflict with Greece and Sicily. As traders, the Carthaginians were well known by selling jewels, perfumes, wheat, precious metals and fabrics specially dyed. Usually, they passed on their products to the peoples of coast of Africa, Britain and Norway.
When we got to the 3rd century BC, observed that the Carthaginians had an extensive trade network that supported the richness of this civilization. However, territorial disputes with the Romans established a terrible defeat that marked the development of so-called Punic Wars. At the end of the battle, divided into three periods, Carthage was reduced to ruins and its lands were sterilized with salt.
Only in the 1st century BC, it was rebuilt by the action of Roman dictator Julius Caesar and, years later, the Emperor Augustus. During the Barbarian invasions, the Vandals set a rule that was interrupted only by the military offensive of the generals of the Byzantine Empire. Long, Carthage became known as the key center of Christianity in Africa. However, the subsequent Islamic expansion transformed the region into an area of Arab hegemony.

BABYLONIANS: The Babylonians ruled Mesopotamia at two different times



By 1900 BC, a new process of territorial invasion decimated the dominance of the Sumerians and Akkadians in the Mesopotamian region. This time, the Amorites, a people from the south of the Arabian Desert, founded a new civilization that had as its main city Babylon. Only in the 18th century Babylonian King Hammurabi managed to pacify the region and institute the First Babylonian Empire.
Under his command, the city of Babylon became one of the most prosperous and important urban centers of all antiquity. This importance can be given even in the Bible, where there is a long mention of the ziggurat of Babel, built in honor of the god Marduk. In fact, there are several buildings, statues and works that hark back to the heyday of this civilization.
Besides promoting the unification of the Mesopotamian territories, King Hammurabi was also essential in preparing the oldest code of laws written in the world. The so-called Code of Hammurabi was known for his many articles dealing with domestic and commercial crimes, rights of inheritance, false accusations and preservation of properties.
The necessary inspiration to this set of written laws was drawn up rests in the old Law of Retaliation, which favors the principle of "eye for eye, tooth for tooth". Despite this influence, the distinctions found in Babylonian society were also considered. Thus, the rigor of the punishments led to a slave was not the same imposed to a dealer.
Even promoting many achievements and building a well organized state, the Babylonians could not withstand a wave of invasions that happened after the government of Hammurabi. At the same time as the Hittites and Kassites took portions of Babylonian domain, other revolts that developed internally make room for the hegemony of the rival kingdoms.
Between the years 1300 and 600 BC, the Mesopotamians saw the Assyrian domination, marked by the violence of its powerful military gear. Around 612 BC, the uprising of the dominated people and the invasive action of the Amorites and Chaldeans instituted the end of the Assyrian Empire and the organization of the Second Babylonian Empire, also known as Neo-Babylonian Empire.
In this new context, we emphasize the action of the Emperor Nebuchadnezzar, who reigned between the years 612 and 539 BC. During his reign, the Babylonian civilization experienced the heyday of architectural development, represented by the construction of walls that protected the city, the luxurious palaces and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, admired as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
The system of Nebuchadnezzar was also known for establishing new territorial conquests, among which stand out the region south of Palestine and the northern borders of Egypt. After this administration, the Babylonian areas were gradually conquered by the Persians, who were led by political and military baton of King Cyrus I.

AZTECS: Human sacrifices were part of the religious practices of the Aztec civilization



Until the 13th century, in the northwest portion of Mexico, we observe the presence of a small semi-nomadic tribe in the Aztlan region. For historical reasons not well understood, this population decided to move to the south, to reach the territory of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico. After defeating some populations that dominated the region, this people was responsible for the creation of the Aztec civilization.
Over two centuries of dominance, the Aztecs formed an impressive empire with more than five hundred cities and home to more than fifteen million inhabitants. In this process of displacement, it is also important to talk about the establishment of agriculture as a fundamental economic activity. Thanks to agriculture, the Aztecs became a large civilization.
First, rudimentary farming techniques allied to a latent unavailability of land suitable for planting. However, this obstacle was overcome by the domination of the system of chinampas. In chinampa, we put a mat on the surface of the flooded regions. On top of these mats, the fertile mud from the bottom of this flooded land was utilized for the plantation.
The diet of the Aztecs was basically dominated by the consumption of dishes made from corn. Moreover, they consumed a liquid extracted from cocoa, known as xocoalt, a kind of ancestor of the popular chocolate. Tobacco, cotton, squash, beans, tomato and pepper also belonged to the rich table of the Aztecs. Interestingly, the consumption of certain meat was reserved for members of the privileged classes.
Patients with a strong culture focused on the conflict, the Aztecs had their society controlled by a military elite. The king was the greatest leader of all the armies and exercised the main political functions alongside another leader for the creation of laws, food distribution and execution of public works. Soon after this political elite, we had the militaries and priests limited to the elite of Aztec society.
Soon after, we had the presence of merchants and handicraftsmen who defined the middle class. The trade was of great importance in the Aztec civilization, the trading usually involved agricultural genres, handicrafts, textiles, paper, rubber, metals and leathers. In some situations, traders acted as spies and, therefore, received tax exemptions.
The peasants occupied the lowest position of the Aztec social hierarchy. We should also note the existence of a small population of slaves, obtained by means of military conflict. The only way to rise happened through some act of bravery performed in war. The soldier was prestiged with the donation of land, jewels and clothes.
The culture and knowledge of the Aztecs had expression in diverse fields. Like the Mayans, they established the creation of a calendar that organized the timing and also coined a writing system. In short, the writing of this people was equipped with a pictorial system that combined the use of objects and figures and other hieroglyphic, systematized by symbols and sounds.
Aztec medicine did not recognize boundaries and distinctions for with religious practices. Healers and priests were part of a rich religious culture surrounded by a number of gods former of a complex mythology provider of meaning to various events and data from the Aztec culture. In some celebrations, the sacrifice and the shedding of human blood belonged to the Aztec rituals.

ASSYRIANS: The Assyrian military culture marked the hegemony of this people in the Mesopotamian region



Located in the Mesopotamian region, the Assyrians are one of the many civilizations that appear between the Tigris and Euphrates. The formation of this empire was thanks to the broad development of a culture clearly focused on the war. Looting, destruction and massacres were common tactics that ensured the supremacy of the Assyrian against the other warrior peoples of the region.
Besides the cruelty, the Assyrian army was composed of an advanced military technology that put them at an advantage over other people. The use of horses guarantees the rapid abatement of multiple enemies on the battlefield. At the same time, the infantry was composed of a broad hierarchy of warriors who had functions that made the Assyrian military force very quickly.
The violent tone of Assyrian domination was able to cause the subordination of various populations found along the Mesopotamian region. However, this culture based on fear and oppression was not sufficient conditions to support the various rebellions that took place against this people. Not coincidentally, in 612 BC, the Chaldeans and Medes were able to defeat the forces of the Assyrian empire.
Under these new conditions, there was the consolidation of so-called Second Babylonian Empire, extending from 612 to 539 BC. The culmination of this new empire unfolds in Nebuchadnezzar's government, recognized by its many public works such as the Tower of Babel and the sumptuous Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the most popular constructions of the ancient world.

ARABS: The Arab civilization was marked by the expansion process of the Islamic religion




The Arabs have a history linked to the area of the Arabian Peninsula, where they settled primarily in a region taken by various deserts that hindered the establishment of sedentary peoples. Therefore, we see that early in their career, the Arabs were peoples of nomadic feature that interspersed among the deserts and valuable oases gifts throughout this territory.
Known as the Bedouins, this portion of the Arab people was known for its polytheistic religion and breeding. The reality of the Bedouins was very different from what we saw in the coastal portions of the Arabian Peninsula. In this other side of Arabia, there are urban centers and the consolidation of a more complex agricultural economy. Among the cities of the region, Mecca stood out, large commercial and religious center of the Arabs.
Regularly, the Arabs moved to the city of Mecca to pay homage and sacrifices to various deities present there. Among other sacred signs, we highlight the valley of Mina, Mount Arafat, the sacred well of Zen Zen and the Kaaba, the principal sacred temple where was housed the Black Stone, a meteorite fragment cubically protected by a huge black silk tent.
The attraction for religious reasons also made possible the realization of big business, which formed a rich merchant class in Mecca. Towards the end of the 6th century, this configuration of the Arab world underwent important changes with the appearance of Muhammad, a young and skilled caravan man that circulated several regions of the East for its business activities.
At this time, he came into contact with different peoples and, presumably, would have noticed the many peculiarities that mark the monotheistic belief of Christians and Jews. In 610, he caused a major upheaval in his life to believe he would deliver a spiritual mission revealed by the angel Gabriel in a dream. From then on, he became the prophet of Allah, the only true God.
The success of his preaching activity ended up establishing winning new adherents to Islam. The unprecedented religious experience sounded like a huge threat to the merchants of Mecca, who believed that trade generated by the polytheists pilgrimages would be annihilated by this new confession. With that, Muhammad and his growing number of followers were persecuted in the vicinity of Mecca.
Cornered, the Prophet Muhammad decided to take refuge in the city of Yatreb, where he won a significant wave of converts who pressured militarily merchants of Mecca. Realizing had no alternative, the traders decided to recognize the religious authority of Muhammad, who had undertaken to preserve the ancient deities of the city of Mecca.
Thereafter, the Arabs were converted en masse to the ideals of Islam and have experienced a new phase in their career. Between the 7th and 8th centuries, the Islamists established a process of expansion that spread their beliefs in various regions of northern Africa, Iberian Peninsula and in some portions of the eastern world.