Links:
http://www2.uol.com.br/historiaviva/
http://www.revistadehistoria.com.br/
http://blogdahistoriaviva.blog.uol.com.br/
http://www.historiadigital.org/
http://saibahistoria.blogspot.com/
http://www.ufrgs.br/historia/
http://www.fflch.usp.br/dh/
quinta-feira, 7 de outubro de 2010
VIKINGS: The Vikings were known by the development of refined techniques of navigation
The Vikings are an ancient civilization originated in the Scandinavian region, which today comprises the territory of three European countries: Sweden, Denmark and Norway. Also known as Norse or Norman, they established a rich culture that had developed thanks to agriculture, handicraft and a remarkable maritime trade.
The life devoted to the seas also established the piracy as another important economic activity. In several raids carried out in Continental Europe, the Vikings plundered and conquered lands, especially in Britain, which now houses the United Kingdom. Chronologically, the Viking civilization reached its peak between the 8th and 11th centuries.
The process of invasion of Britain happened in the late 8th century. In the year 865, a powerful army of Danish Vikings waged a war that resulted in the conquest of much of the British lands. Thus, we see the consolidation of Danelaw, an extensive Viking territory that encompassed the Center-North and East of Britain. At the same time, the Vikings continued their expansion in Scottish lands.
The dwellings of the Vikings were very simple. Wood, stones and dry grass were the main factors used in the construction of residences. Moreover, we observe that the spatial distribution of home was very simple, often with the presence of a single room. In a little more affluent families, we observe the presence of a more complex division consists of rooms, kitchen and bedrooms.
Because of low temperatures, the Vikings had the expressed need for a garment that could withstand the freezing temperatures in northern Europe. Generally, they combined pieces of fabric with leather and thick skins that could keep their body warm. Moreover, we also emphasize that all the people enjoyed the use of accessories in metal and stone.
The Viking family organization had clear patriarchal traces, being the man largely responsible for family protection and realization of the main economic activities. Dedicated to the domestic domain, the woman was responsible for food preparation and also helped in small daily tasks. Children’s education was delegated to parents, being they who conveyed the Viking traditions and crafts.
The king was the main political authority among the Vikings. Shortly thereafter, the earls and chieftains also enjoyed great prestige and power of command among the population. The decision-making power between the sites had some presence among the Vikings. Gathered outdoors, they discussed the development of their own laws and punishments to be deferred against criminals.
In the religious sphere, the Vikings were carriers of a rich mythology populated by various gods systematically worshiped in collective events. Several stories involve the struggle between the Norse gods or the conflict between the gods and the giants. Odin was worshiped as “the God of gods”. Thor was the god of greater popularity and had power over the heavens and protected the Viking people.
With the Christianization of Europe, throughout the Middle Ages, the Vikings were gradually converted to this new religion. The dissolution of the Viking culture happens between the 11th and 12th centuries. The various conflicts against the English and the nobles of Normandy established the disintegration of this civilization, which is still manifest in some manifestations of European culture.
TURKS: The Turks formed one of the most extensive empires in all history
The origin of Turkish civilization dates back to the decay process of the domination of the Huns in Central Asia. Previously known as “Gokturks”, this people has been consolidated thanks to the strategic location of their territories, controlled by thriving trade routes. However, the decline of this civilization propitiated the invasion of the Mongols and Arabs to this portion of the Asian territory.
In this process, we see the rise of the Seljuks, an Islamic tribe that was able to determine the expansion of the Muslim faith in Asia Minor. At the height of its formation, the Turkish-Ottoman Empire encompassed large parts of Anatolia, the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and the Balkans. Between the 16th and 17th centuries they composed one of the most powerful states in the Modern World.
In the 19th century, the Turkish-Ottomans did not experience the same times of prosperity and hegemony. During the First World War (1914-1918), they fought alongside the Germans and ended up losing their fields after being defeated and forced to agree with the stipulated terms by the Treaty of Sevres. The intention was to perform the dismemberment of Turkish-Ottoman territories in favor of the domination of the Allies.
However, under the leadership of General Mustafa Kemal, the Turks put an end to the hegemonic interests of foreigners in the conflict that became known as the Turkish War of Independence. From this moment, the Turks experienced a clear process of westernization of its political institutions by imposing the end of the Sultanate and the local power of their caliphs.
From the second half of the 20th century onward, the Turkish nation has experienced a noticeable process of westernization of its culture. Meanwhile, economic crises and political coups printed the ebbs and flows of this modernizing trend. Currently, one of the most important goals of the Turkish government is to enable the country’s economic integration with the European Union.
In this process, we see the rise of the Seljuks, an Islamic tribe that was able to determine the expansion of the Muslim faith in Asia Minor. At the height of its formation, the Turkish-Ottoman Empire encompassed large parts of Anatolia, the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and the Balkans. Between the 16th and 17th centuries they composed one of the most powerful states in the Modern World.
In the 19th century, the Turkish-Ottomans did not experience the same times of prosperity and hegemony. During the First World War (1914-1918), they fought alongside the Germans and ended up losing their fields after being defeated and forced to agree with the stipulated terms by the Treaty of Sevres. The intention was to perform the dismemberment of Turkish-Ottoman territories in favor of the domination of the Allies.
However, under the leadership of General Mustafa Kemal, the Turks put an end to the hegemonic interests of foreigners in the conflict that became known as the Turkish War of Independence. From this moment, the Turks experienced a clear process of westernization of its political institutions by imposing the end of the Sultanate and the local power of their caliphs.
From the second half of the 20th century onward, the Turkish nation has experienced a noticeable process of westernization of its culture. Meanwhile, economic crises and political coups printed the ebbs and flows of this modernizing trend. Currently, one of the most important goals of the Turkish government is to enable the country’s economic integration with the European Union.
SUMERIANS: The Sumerians are considered the oldest civilization of humanity
Throughout the history of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians are considered the first civilization to occupy the territories between the Tigris and Euphrates. In the 4th millennium BC, the first Sumerian populations moved from the plateau of Iran until they lodge in the region of Chaldea, which includes the Middle and Lower Mesopotamia. Probably Quish was the first city founded and was soon followed by the development of cities such as Eridu, Nippur, Ur, Uruk and Lagash.
From the political point of view, the Sumerian cities were completely independent. In each, a priest had the help of a group of elders to make major policy decision were posted. However, at some point, we see that this configuration is being replaced by a more centralized model. The patesi assumes the condition of monarch of the city-state and transmits the powers of his office for an heir, forming a dynasty.
One of the most significant contributions of the Sumerians is linked to the development of so-called cuneiform. In this system, we observe the characters printed on a base of clay that was exposed to the sun, and soon after, hardened with its exposure to the fire. In fact, this Mesopotamian civilization produced an extensive literary activity which included the creation of poetry, law codes, fables, myths and other narratives.
The absence of political union between the Sumerians can be seen in the existence of various conflicts between the cities that occupied the territory. Taking advantage of the constant wars between the cities of Lagash and Ur, the Semites settled in Mesopotamia and organized a robust civilization around the city of Akkad. Around 2350 BC the Akkadian conquered the Sumerian regions, and thus constituted the Akkadian Empire, the first great Mesopotamian state.
From the political point of view, the Sumerian cities were completely independent. In each, a priest had the help of a group of elders to make major policy decision were posted. However, at some point, we see that this configuration is being replaced by a more centralized model. The patesi assumes the condition of monarch of the city-state and transmits the powers of his office for an heir, forming a dynasty.
One of the most significant contributions of the Sumerians is linked to the development of so-called cuneiform. In this system, we observe the characters printed on a base of clay that was exposed to the sun, and soon after, hardened with its exposure to the fire. In fact, this Mesopotamian civilization produced an extensive literary activity which included the creation of poetry, law codes, fables, myths and other narratives.
The absence of political union between the Sumerians can be seen in the existence of various conflicts between the cities that occupied the territory. Taking advantage of the constant wars between the cities of Lagash and Ur, the Semites settled in Mesopotamia and organized a robust civilization around the city of Akkad. Around 2350 BC the Akkadian conquered the Sumerian regions, and thus constituted the Akkadian Empire, the first great Mesopotamian state.
RUSSIANS: The Russian nation is composed of ethnic groups that link the variety of this civilization
The formation of Russian civilization dates back to prehistoric times, when glaciations and the process of climate change guided the process of occupation of Eastern Europe. Going into antiquity, we note the dominance of pre-Slavic peoples, who mastered the use of metal to defend themselves from warrior nomadic tribes who reached the territory.
Over time, the Slavs withstood the waves of occupation and developed an economy based on exploitation of agriculture, livestock, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. In the 9th century, the Slavic civilization established contact with the Vikings, who came into conflict with the Slavic people, named by them as “Rus”. Probably this may be one of the etymological origins of the use of the word “Russian” to denote the inhabitants of this region.
Because of its enormous territorial extension, Russia developed a slow and lengthy process of political centralization. Throughout the Middle Ages, Volga Bulgaria and the Russians of Kiev formed some more stable governmental experiments that dominated the Russian space. In the 13th century the Mongol-Tatar incursion signed a new period in Russian history.
The destruction promoted by this foreign people over dismantling all the legacy of large cities that took centuries to establish. Over two and a half centuries, the Mongols drew a vigorous process of domination that was reversed only through the efforts of military and political unification of the people of Eastern Europe.
The development of unification became known as the Renaissance period of Russian civilization, and marked the formation of a national centralized monarchy. The culmination of this process of unification happened in the government of Peter the Great, who bothered to boost the Russian economy by sending people to master the techniques of European shipping.
The action of this monarch transformed the closed and self-sufficient economic scenario, which once dominated the Russian scene. The agricultural and commercial activities began to reach a new level and the Imperial State expanded its power of domination in that vast territory. In the 19th century, the Russians had intense involvement in the wars that sought to impede the progress of the Napoleonic Empire.
Despite many achievements, Russians experienced the formation of serious contradictions within their society. The peasants and urban workers experienced a situation of misery that was diametrically opposed to the wealth of a small elite in control of productive assets and explicitly protected by the powers of Tsarist rule.
This scenario become with the legendary 1917 Russian Revolution, where workers were gradually taken by the socialist doctrines. At the time this event caused great surprise to the rest of the Western capitalist world that abhorred the development of such expertise in its fields. Since then, the Russians realized the formation of a Socialist State.
After World War II, the decisive role of Russian troops against the totalitarian forces undertook the development of Russian political influence. In contrast, the capitalist nations, represented by the United States, sought to counter this ideological advance with the imposition of so-called bipolar order. Thus, the development of the Cold War came to be experienced.
Between the 1970s and 1980s, the Russian socialist system gone through serious difficulties from a gigantic and corrupt bureaucratic structure. Thus, through the actions of Mikhail Gorbachev, Russian socialism came to an end. Since then, Russia faced the challenge of modernizing its economy and repairing the problems brought by the previous regime. Currently, the Russian nation is seen as an economically emerging country.
Over time, the Slavs withstood the waves of occupation and developed an economy based on exploitation of agriculture, livestock, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. In the 9th century, the Slavic civilization established contact with the Vikings, who came into conflict with the Slavic people, named by them as “Rus”. Probably this may be one of the etymological origins of the use of the word “Russian” to denote the inhabitants of this region.
Because of its enormous territorial extension, Russia developed a slow and lengthy process of political centralization. Throughout the Middle Ages, Volga Bulgaria and the Russians of Kiev formed some more stable governmental experiments that dominated the Russian space. In the 13th century the Mongol-Tatar incursion signed a new period in Russian history.
The destruction promoted by this foreign people over dismantling all the legacy of large cities that took centuries to establish. Over two and a half centuries, the Mongols drew a vigorous process of domination that was reversed only through the efforts of military and political unification of the people of Eastern Europe.
The development of unification became known as the Renaissance period of Russian civilization, and marked the formation of a national centralized monarchy. The culmination of this process of unification happened in the government of Peter the Great, who bothered to boost the Russian economy by sending people to master the techniques of European shipping.
The action of this monarch transformed the closed and self-sufficient economic scenario, which once dominated the Russian scene. The agricultural and commercial activities began to reach a new level and the Imperial State expanded its power of domination in that vast territory. In the 19th century, the Russians had intense involvement in the wars that sought to impede the progress of the Napoleonic Empire.
Despite many achievements, Russians experienced the formation of serious contradictions within their society. The peasants and urban workers experienced a situation of misery that was diametrically opposed to the wealth of a small elite in control of productive assets and explicitly protected by the powers of Tsarist rule.
This scenario become with the legendary 1917 Russian Revolution, where workers were gradually taken by the socialist doctrines. At the time this event caused great surprise to the rest of the Western capitalist world that abhorred the development of such expertise in its fields. Since then, the Russians realized the formation of a Socialist State.
After World War II, the decisive role of Russian troops against the totalitarian forces undertook the development of Russian political influence. In contrast, the capitalist nations, represented by the United States, sought to counter this ideological advance with the imposition of so-called bipolar order. Thus, the development of the Cold War came to be experienced.
Between the 1970s and 1980s, the Russian socialist system gone through serious difficulties from a gigantic and corrupt bureaucratic structure. Thus, through the actions of Mikhail Gorbachev, Russian socialism came to an end. Since then, Russia faced the challenge of modernizing its economy and repairing the problems brought by the previous regime. Currently, the Russian nation is seen as an economically emerging country.
ROMANS: The Romans influence many institutions and customs of the West
When we look at the extent of the Roman Empire on a map, we hardly imagine that this civilization originated from a small town in the Italian peninsula. Nestled in the central portion of this territory, the city of Rome was born through the efforts of the Latins and Sabines peoples who around 1000 BC had erected a fort that would prevent the incursion of the Etruscans.
The few details about the origins of Rome are shrouded by the classic mythical explanation that attributes its foundation to the action taken by the brothers Romulus and Remus. After founding Rome would have experienced its monarchic period, where the king established its political hegemony over the entire population and had the support of a Council of Elders known as the Senate.
The members of the Senate came from the patrician class, who had control over the large and fertile farms of the region. Over time, the economic hegemony of this elite allowed the formation of a republican regime in which the Senate took major political tasks. Between the 6th and 1st centuries BC, the republican regime guided the political life of Roman citizens.
However, the patrician hegemony was increasingly opposed by commoners who occupied the ranks of the army and guaranteed military protection of the Roman areas. Progressively, the plebeian class came to enjoy rights within the republican regime and make laws that target the rights and obligations that this social group had.
Despite these reforms, social inequality continued to prevail upon a society that started to depend increasingly on the workforce of its slaves. The territorial conquests enriched the Roman elites and determined the dependence of a mass of commoners who could not find work opportunities. In fact, social tensions were constant and showed the differences of the Roman world.
Gradually, the social tensions widened with the rise of military leaders (generals) who coveted to take front of the Roman state. The attempted coup signaled the undoing of the republican power and paved the way that turned Rome into an Empire. In the 1st century BC, the general Octavius finally managed to establish the imperial order.
During the Empire, we see the rise of governments that kept order, as well as other leaders who imbibed the power won. In the 1st century AD, the development of the Christian religion was a fundamental point in the transformation of the Empire. The religious and expansionary doctrine contradicted the beliefs (polytheism) and institutions (slavery) that held up the Roman world.
Around the 3rd century, the advent of the Barbarian invasions and the disruption of the expansion of territories marched in favor of the dissolution of this Empire. Despite the defeat imposed on the Romans, their practices, concepts and knowledge are still fundamental to understanding the shape of the Western world. In a sense, all roads still lead us (a little) to Rome.
The few details about the origins of Rome are shrouded by the classic mythical explanation that attributes its foundation to the action taken by the brothers Romulus and Remus. After founding Rome would have experienced its monarchic period, where the king established its political hegemony over the entire population and had the support of a Council of Elders known as the Senate.
The members of the Senate came from the patrician class, who had control over the large and fertile farms of the region. Over time, the economic hegemony of this elite allowed the formation of a republican regime in which the Senate took major political tasks. Between the 6th and 1st centuries BC, the republican regime guided the political life of Roman citizens.
However, the patrician hegemony was increasingly opposed by commoners who occupied the ranks of the army and guaranteed military protection of the Roman areas. Progressively, the plebeian class came to enjoy rights within the republican regime and make laws that target the rights and obligations that this social group had.
Despite these reforms, social inequality continued to prevail upon a society that started to depend increasingly on the workforce of its slaves. The territorial conquests enriched the Roman elites and determined the dependence of a mass of commoners who could not find work opportunities. In fact, social tensions were constant and showed the differences of the Roman world.
Gradually, the social tensions widened with the rise of military leaders (generals) who coveted to take front of the Roman state. The attempted coup signaled the undoing of the republican power and paved the way that turned Rome into an Empire. In the 1st century BC, the general Octavius finally managed to establish the imperial order.
During the Empire, we see the rise of governments that kept order, as well as other leaders who imbibed the power won. In the 1st century AD, the development of the Christian religion was a fundamental point in the transformation of the Empire. The religious and expansionary doctrine contradicted the beliefs (polytheism) and institutions (slavery) that held up the Roman world.
Around the 3rd century, the advent of the Barbarian invasions and the disruption of the expansion of territories marched in favor of the dissolution of this Empire. Despite the defeat imposed on the Romans, their practices, concepts and knowledge are still fundamental to understanding the shape of the Western world. In a sense, all roads still lead us (a little) to Rome.
RAPA NUI: The sculptures of Rapa Nui civilization are unknown to scholars of Easter Island
Known as one of the most distant points in the planet, Easter Island is located in exactly 3700 kilometers of the American continent and almost keeps the same distance to Tahiti in the Pacific. Due to the isolated location, this small amount of land released in the ocean does not seem to be conducive to the formation of any civilization or culture.
Not only that the problem of distance, Easter is an island endowed of several landforms that prevent the presence of fertile land or other resources conducive to human settlement. However, contrary to almost grotesque image of this place, Easter is taken by a number of giant statues that claim to represent the face of a human.
From this evidence, many people had the curiosity to investigate and try to unravel this mystery revealed by a group of Dutch navigators of the 18th century. After several studies, ethnographers and other specialists concluded that the so-called “Rapa Nui people” came to Easter Island in small vessels with double hulls.
Living alongside the scientific evidence, the oral tradition of some peoples who live closest to the site says the first to step on that land was a guy named Hotu Matua. For archaeologists, the process of occupation of the island would have happened between the 5th and 8th centuries AD. Moreover, students are also convinced that the animal population would have been installed by the Polynesian tribes who visited the region.
Whatever the events which provide a logical explanation to the process of occupation of the island, the presence of statues of a human face, also known as moai, is the great mystery that surrounds the place. In all, 887 monoliths are accounted that have between 1 to 10 meters tall. We should also stress that other similar versions of these statues can be found in Tahiti and Hawaii.
No more clear reports or evidence indicates the real motives which would have justified the construction of these statues. However, performing a comparative study of the traditions of the neighbor Polynesian peoples, some scholars concluded that the statues would serve to demarcate the land or point to the political leadership of a leader who had lived on the island.
Not only that the problem of distance, Easter is an island endowed of several landforms that prevent the presence of fertile land or other resources conducive to human settlement. However, contrary to almost grotesque image of this place, Easter is taken by a number of giant statues that claim to represent the face of a human.
From this evidence, many people had the curiosity to investigate and try to unravel this mystery revealed by a group of Dutch navigators of the 18th century. After several studies, ethnographers and other specialists concluded that the so-called “Rapa Nui people” came to Easter Island in small vessels with double hulls.
Living alongside the scientific evidence, the oral tradition of some peoples who live closest to the site says the first to step on that land was a guy named Hotu Matua. For archaeologists, the process of occupation of the island would have happened between the 5th and 8th centuries AD. Moreover, students are also convinced that the animal population would have been installed by the Polynesian tribes who visited the region.
Whatever the events which provide a logical explanation to the process of occupation of the island, the presence of statues of a human face, also known as moai, is the great mystery that surrounds the place. In all, 887 monoliths are accounted that have between 1 to 10 meters tall. We should also stress that other similar versions of these statues can be found in Tahiti and Hawaii.
No more clear reports or evidence indicates the real motives which would have justified the construction of these statues. However, performing a comparative study of the traditions of the neighbor Polynesian peoples, some scholars concluded that the statues would serve to demarcate the land or point to the political leadership of a leader who had lived on the island.
Assinar:
Postagens (Atom)